Constructionism in the Classroom

As a science teacher, I ask students to generate and test hypotheses often. I was a bit surprised by the suggestion of Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) that teachers of all disciplines use the generation and testing of hypotheses as an instructional strategy to increase student learning. The idea that teachers in other content areas could use scientific processes to engage students in the learning process really excites me.

The method of generating and testing hypotheses can be aligned with the principles of constructionist learning theory. According to constructionist theory, learners create a schema, or personal understanding, of the external world. When new information is encountered, the learner deals with it through one of two processes: assimilation or accommodation. Through assimilation, the learner makes the external reality (in this case the data collected through the testing of a hypothesis) fit with his or her own schema. Conversely, through accommodation, the learner adjusts his or her own schema to fit with the external reality. The construction of artifacts is central to constructionist learning theory. When the student is actively engaged in constructing artifacts, he or she is processing new information by accommodation and assimilation (Laureate Education, Inc., 2009). Thus, the new information is encoded in the memory.

In order to incorporate the constructionist approach, students must follow up their data collection with the creation of an artifact. Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) discussed a project in which students collected data about the pH of water sources in their community. They created hypotheses and then tested them by collecting the data. Students could then use the data to create an artifact – perhaps an informative brochure about acid rain or a power point presentation to explain the cause and effect of acid rain.

Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) also listed several web-based programs that incorporate the generation and testing of hypotheses. One of the programs, Primary Access, gives students access to primary-source images about historical events. The students then create movies using the images. The creation of movies aligns with the constructionist theory of learning because students are actively engaged in the creation of an artifact (Laureate Education, Inc., 2009).

Resources

Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2009). Bridging learning theory, instruction, and technology. Baltimore: Author.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Cognitive Learning Theory

According to Orey (Laureate Education, Inc., 2009), cognitive learning theories include the idea that short term memory is limited to processing seven (plus or minus two) pieces of information at a time, information is encoded in the memory through the mechanism of elaboration, images are encoded into the memory much more effectively than text, and episodic experiences provide a basis for creating a network of new ideas. Cues, questions, and advance organizers relate to cognitive theory in that they help to make new informational manageable for the learner. Because the short term memory is limited in the amount of information that it can process at one time, it is important for students to prepare to organize the information that they encounter. Teachers can facilitate this preparation by providing cues, questions, and advance organizers. An example of an advance organizer is a two-column notes template. As students encounter new information, they can record and organize it into their template (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski, 2007).

The strategy of summarizing, specifically reciprocal teaching, helps students to remember information through the process of elaboration. As described by Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski, reciprocal teaching involves one student who acts as the leader. The leader summarizes information, asks questions, asks for clarification, and asks for predictions from the class. This process of elaboration helps students to make additional cognitive connections and increase their likelihood of recalling the information later.

Additional cognitive connections can be made by creating meaningful images and episodic experiences. When students create concept maps, they make a visual representation of the concepts they are learning. While concept maps contain text, the text is arranged graphically to organize connections between words and concepts (Novak and Canas). Episodic experiences can be created through the use of virtual field trips. The virtual trips take students to places where they could not travel to during the school day and allow them to experience the information that they are learning first hand.

The strategies outlined above align with cognitive learning theories. Cognitive learning theory takes into consideration the manner in which information is encoded in the brain. The strategies above address several components of cognitive learning theory, including the limitations of short term memory, the effectiveness of images, the importance of elaboration, and the network model of acquiring new information.





References:
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2009). Bridging learning theory, instruction, and technology. Baltimore: Author.


Novak, J. D. & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/Research Papers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf


Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Behaviorism in Practice

Behaviorist theory focuses only the observable behavior of the learner (Orey, 2001). While behaviorist theory is often applied to classroom management, it can also be applied to instructional techniques. Orey (Laureate Education, Inc., 2009) explains that a strategy called programmed instruction employs findings of behaviorism for instructional purposes. In programmed instruction, information is presented followed by questions for the student to answer. Providing the correct answer is the desired behavior, so if the student answers correctly, the behavior is reinforced. If the student answers incorrectly, the information is presented again, followed by more questions. Orey (Laureate Education, Inc., 2009) points out that online computer tutorials follow the same format as programmed instruction. As students progress through tutorials, they must answer questions to demonstrate what they have learned. If they answer correctly, they move forward in the tutorial, and if not, they spend more time on the topic.

Educational technology correlates with behaviorism in other ways, as well. One web site, www.flashcardexchange.com (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007), allows students to make their own flash cards and then practice studying with them. Flash cards are a traditional drill and practice technique, relying on stimulus and response. While technology may provide easy access to behaviorist-driven instructional techniques, the uses of educational technology should not be confined to behaviorist strategies. Technology provides access to a wide variety of instructional tools, many of which provide differentiated instruction tailored to the learning needs of the student (Pitler, et al., 2007). Instructional practices based upon behaviorism should be used sparingly and in conjunction with a variety of other instructional techniques. Technology in the classroom should also be aligned with a variety of instructional strategies to achieve maximum student engagement and learning.


References
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2009). Bridging learning theory, instruction, and technology. Baltimore: Author.

Orey, M.(Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.